Utilitarianism and Greatest Happiness Essay Example for Free

Utilitarianism and Greatest Happiness Essay Utilitarianism begins with the work of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), an English political and social reformer. Educated at Oxford, Bentham eventually headed up a small group of thinkers called the â€Å"Philosophical Radicals. † This group, which included James Mill (father of John Stuart Mill, more on him later), was dedicated to social reform and the promulgation of Bentham’s ideas. Bentham based utilitarian ethics on the so-called â€Å"greatest happiness principle,† an idea originally enunciated by Frances Hutcheson (16941746), one of the founders of the Scottish Enlightenment. Put simply, Bentham believed that the goal of ethics was to promote â€Å"the greatest happiness of the greatest number. † Interestingly enough, Bentham went on to say that happiness consists in experiencing more pleasures than pains. That is, Bentham connects the welfare of the greatest number to a hedonistic view that values pleasure over pain. He then constructed what he termed a â€Å"hedonistic calculus† as an objective measure of the value of various pleasures or pains in terms of such categories as â€Å"intensity, duration, certainty, proximity, productiveness, purity, and extent. † Using such quantitative measures, Bentham felt he could calculate the â€Å"happiness factor† of various proposed courses of action. The action promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number in a particular situation would be morally best. Notice two things about Bentham’s approach. First, implicit in his argument is the belief that the only way to measure the moral worth of an action is to evaluate its consequences: Will it produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number or not? Whatever does produce the greatest happiness in a particular situation, Bentham claims, will be morally correct. Second, the contrast to Kant could not be more clear. For Kant, the moral worth of an action lies strictly in the motive for taking the action, never its consequences. Only a good will, properly apprehending its duty through use of the categorical imperative and then acting to fulfill that duty, is capable of performing a morally good action. Bentham himself was an ardent political reformer, arguing tenaciously for a number of, what were for the day, radical views, including equality for women, prison reform, decriminalization of homosexuality, and animal rights. The more philosophical development of his ethical ideas fell to his followers, particularly James Mill and, later, Mill’s son John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). The younger Mill, aggressively educated by his father from ages three to fourteen, grew to be one of the 2 great thinkers of the nineteenth century. In the process, John Stuart Mill considerably refined Bentham’s utilitarianism. Writing in his 1861 essay Utilitarianism, Mill modifies Bentham’s view of pleasure and pain. Bentham had sought to distinguish pleasures and pains quantitatively (e. g., more or less intense, more or less in duration, more or less in extent, etc. ). Mill, by contrast, sought to include qualitative features, arguing, for instance, that the experience an intellectual or aesthetic pleasure (like reading a good book) might be more pleasurable than the physical pleasure of something like a good meal. Mill otherwise seeks to defend Bentham’s basic ideas. In doing so, Mill tries to resolve a conflict in Bentham’s thought. This conflict arises because of a difference between Bentham’s account of (1) hedonism for the individual and (2) hedonism as an ethical theory. An individual acts, Bentham says, solely out of a desire for happiness (i. e. , more pleasures than pains). This account could be termed descriptive in that it claims to explain why a person acts. But according to hedonism as an ethical theory, however, the individual should seek â€Å"the greatest happiness of the greatest number. † This view is not descriptive, but normative because it tells what the individual should do. This conflict leads to two problems. The first is obvious: if each individual is motivated to act to attain personal happiness, then why would that person have any concern to promote the welfare of others? The second is more theoretical: How to get from a descriptive theory of how individuals act to a normative theory of why individuals should all seek â€Å"the greatest happiness of the greatest number. † To solve the first problem, Mill introduces the idea of external and internal sanctions. These sanctions serve for Mill as the bridge between the world of the individual and the larger social universal of which we are all a part. External sanctions, for example, are social rules and laws that reward or punish persons for particular actions. Individuals view these sanctions in terms of their potential for pleasure or pain and adjust their future behavior accordingly. Mill’s view of internal sanctions is different. There, he sounds a bit like Hume, arguing that obeying a moral law produces a feeling of pleasure (and disobeying such a law produces a feeling of pain). Such feelings can, in turn, be can be observed to develop (in some people, at least) into a deep sympathy for others, thus illustrating the operation of the â€Å"greatest happiness principle† from within such persons. For such persons, their own happiness may truly depend on the happiness of others, which seems 3 to show that the individual desire for happiness can be reconciled with the theoretical demand that individuals act for the welfare of all. Why such connection might occur in some individuals rather than in others remains a question. At this point, contrasting Mill with Hume is instructive. Mill argues that, as can be observed, individuals develop a sense of pleasure or pain associated with obeying or disobeying moral laws and that, at least for some, those pleasures and pains become the basis for a sympathetic connection with others. Hume argues that such sympathetic connection is natural. By growing up in a human society, we intuitively learn to associate a feeling of moral pleasure with some acts and moral pain with others. Thus, for Hume, sentiment (or the particular feelings associated with moral or immoral acts) is a normal part of human development; whereas, for Mill, internal sanctions—and the role of the â€Å"greatest happiness principle†can be observed in people’s behavior, but a general theory of why people do this is lacking. Another place where a general theory is lacking is in the second problem described above: How to get from a descriptive theory of how individuals act to a normative theory of why individuals should all seek â€Å"the greatest happiness of the greatest number. † Mill argues here that there is no way to prove such a first principle as the â€Å"greatest happiness principle. † Indeed, he says, â€Å"No reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires his own happiness. † Since Mill’s time, utilitarianism has been widely debated, and an interesting distinction has emerged between Bentham and Mills theories. For Bentham, what makes an action right depends upon whether it contributes to the greatest happiness of the greatest number. That is, Bentham focuses on the happiness-producing potential of each individual action. We can call this act-utilitarianism. Mill, to some extent, seems to subscribe to this view, but he also at points takes a position we might call rule-utilitarianism. From this viewpoint, the morality of an action does not depend on whether it actually produces the greatest happiness; rather, what counts is whether the rule that the action exemplifies in fact satisfies the need for the greatest happiness of the greatest number. These two forms of utilitarianism continue to be debated by ethicists today. To illustrate the distinction between these two forms of utilitarianism, consider the following case. Suppose that a person unknowingly carried a deadly, highly contagious disease. An act-utilitarian might argue that we would be justified in killing such an individual to protect society from the disease (and thereby promote the greatest 4 happiness of the greatest number). A rule-utilitarian, on the other hand, might point out that the rule or principle involved in such an act (that we might kill someone when we found it in the best interest of the greatest number) should be rejected because it was, in fact, a dangerous rule and could ultimately lead to diminishing the greatest happiness of all. (Incidentally, you may have noticed that the rule-utilitarians position is reminiscent of Kant. ) In conclusion, the utilitarian viewpoint championed by Bentham and refined by John Stuart Mill has come to be one of the two major schools of ethical thought among academic philosophers in the United States and elsewhere. Its major competition, of course, comes from Kant’s deontological ethics. It is worth mentioning as well that utilitarianism has also had a powerful impact outside ethical circles. Remember that Bentham himself was primarily a liberal political reformer, so it is fitting that politics and public policy are also areas in which reasoning about the â€Å"greatest good for the greatest number† continues to widely practiced.

Enlightenment Established by the Community Essay -- Philosophy, Socra

Sophocles’ Oedipus, Plato’s ship owner, and Plato’s prisoner in the cave share a common theme of reluctance to learn from the truth, and show the role that others play in facing self-identity. All three, Oedipus, the ship owner, and the prisoner in the cave illustrate the theme of deliberation manifested by a society. Enlightened by others, Oedipus finally learns that he has committed murder and incest. Similarly, the ship owner is shown his limitations and thus understands that he is not qualified to navigate his vessel when the sailors quarrel over who would be next in command. Furthermore, the prisoner in the cave is dragged out by others (community of enlightened individuals) and given the opportunity to view the real world for the first time. Therefore, with the assistance of others (community), Oedipus, the ship owner, and the prisoner in the cave are able to acknowledge their identities and face the truth about their erroneous behavior. Through Sophocles a nd Plato, civic deliberation comes into these three approaches: (1) with the evidence given to him by the public, Oedipus learns the truth of his identity, and accepts the judgment and punishment he had imposed on the culprit before he knew; (2) through the violent actions of the sailors, the ship owner acknowledges his limitations; and (3) the prisoner is dragged from the cave into the world of sunlight, exposed to the truth and returns to the cave to deliberate with others to come out. Hence, all three cases show the process of civic deliberation is achieved through community. Oedipus at first finds the implications of killing his father and sleeping with his mother difficult to tolerate as a factual manifestation of his past. He disputes the fact that he had caused suc... ...liance with the truth. Socrates states, â€Å"The truth of the matter is that it makes no difference whether you’re rich or poor: if you fell ill, you’re bound to dance attendance on a doctor, and if you need to accept authority, you must dance attendance on someone in authority who is capable of providing it† (Plato 209-210), in order to convey that a individual requires a society or a third party to become enlightened. Oedipus ultimately becomes aware of his errors when the community shows them to him. The ship owner becomes aware of his incapability when the sailors threaten to overthrow him. The prisoner in the cave acknowledges the truth when others force him out of the cave. Thus Socrates serves as a model of civic deliberation when he illustrates their behavior and, questions through dialogue with his interlocutors, the ability to find truth and be enlightened.

One World

Different factors that affect speed limits on the road s for vehicles. ? Speed limit is the maximum speed at which a vehicle can travel in a certain area. Usually they are indicated by signs next to the road. As you can see from the graph below, speed limits are extremely important. If speed limits wouldn’t be there, a lot more accidents would resolve into death. Speed of the vehicle in miles/hourPercentage of chance of death 207 3044 4086 Those speed limits aren’t just chosen by people. Many things have to be considered while deciding about a speed limit. A lot of environmental and human factors affect those limits.Some of these are: †¢The weather †¢Traffic †¢The driver †¢The vehicle †¢The road condition †¢The type of environment The weather can affect a lot of things that then affect speed limits. This we can notice by the temporarily change in speed limits when there are bad weather circumstances. For example when it is raining very heav ily or there is snow, speed limits will be changed until it stops raining or the snow melts. These changes are usually indicated by electrical signs on the road. Even when it is not indicated, drivers should be responsible enough to slow down in these circumstances.The traffic is also a very important factor. In areas where there is a lot of traffic, the speed limits will generally be set lower. Since in these areas a lot of cars come together at the same time accidents can easily happen. Those areas with a lot of traffic are usually where there are traffic lights or pedestrian crossings. The speed limit will be indicated by a road sign. The driver is one of the most important factors. The bad thing about this factor is that the driver is very unpredictable and the drivers behavior is different all the time.Speed limits can obviously not be set according to every driver’s mood so generally they look at the other factors: weather, traffic, vehicle, road condition and type of e nvironment to predict the driver’s behavior. Generally drivers will tend to drive fast when there isn’t a lot of traffic and when there are no obstacles. This can be very dangerous as unexpected things can happen. In these areas the speed limit could be decreased based on that. The vehicle and the state of the vehicle are also very important when setting speed limits.Obviously the speed limit can’t be set according to every individual vehicle so usually the speed limit is chosen in a way which is not too fast so that the older vehicles can keep up and not too slow so the people with faster vehicles won’t get annoyed. They also look at the type of area in which the speed limit has to be set. If it’s in a country area with farms, they will take in consideration that also tractors will be driving there and animals can be around. The road condition has to be very good in order to be able to drive on it in the first place.In sandy roads or areas where a lot of mud may occur, the speed limits will be set lower so that the vehicle has a lower chance of slipping. Bumps in the road will also cause the speed limit to be lower than in straight areas. That’s also the reason why speed bumps are used. They make people drive slower as they can damage their vehicle in case they don’t. The type of environment has to do with the people that live around but also the buildings that are close or nature around the roads. In urbanized areas where a lot of people live, the speed limit will be set quite low to cause as less danger for pedestrians as possible.Then, talking about buildings in the surrounding area, if there is a mall or a school they will have to take in consideration that children or families with children will be walking around there and crossing the streets. Therefore the speed limits will be adjusted so that even if there is a collision the chance of death won’t be very high. In some cases, very polluted environ ments can cause the speed limit to be set lower but in some cases even higher. This is because the pollution of a car is lower when it either drives at a very low speed or quite a high speed as shown in the graph below.As the speed increases you can see that the fuel consumption and therefore also the pollution increases. But when you reach a certain speed, that fuel consumption will start decreasing again. So for the least amount of pollution you should driver very slow or faster than about 60 miles per hour. Bibliography onlinemanuals. txdot. gov/†¦ /factors_affecting_safe_speed. htm www. ibiblio. org/rdu/sl-irrel. html www. transport. qld. gov. au †º †¦ †º Safety †º Road †º Speeding www. wellington. govt. nz/projects/new/†¦ /lowerspeed-facts. pdf www. conference. noehumanist. org/†¦ /Proceedings-HUMANIST-S6. 6. pd

Is the U.S. prepared for another terrorist attack? Essay

In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 9/11, securing the country has become a national priority. The events of 9/11 were the first attacks on the United States (U.S.) since Pearl Harbor which catapulted the U.S. into World War II. As of the writing of this paper, the U.S. has been engaged in the War on Terrorism for 13 years. During this period of time the U.S. has been kept free from terrorist attacks by changes to laws, technology, and investigative methods to combat terrorism internationally. Although there have been a number of changes to U.S. law and American citizens have been kept safe, the threat of terrorism has not abated. With the continued threat of terrorism to the U.S. and its citizens, there is a high probability that the U.S. will suffer another 9/11 type of event. The U.S. has shown its resolve in recovering from 9/11 and the many natural disasters that have occurred since and is preparing for incidents in the future. There is a plethora of information and stu dies conducted after 9/11 that, in great detail, informed us to the extent we failed to prevent the events of 9/11. Ironically, in the years after the creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) many academics feel we are no safer now than we were prior to 9/11. In a historical context, the U.S. has been reactive in nature to every major catastrophe it has endured. The cycle of disaster events has repeated itself over and over throughout our history. The U.S. experiences a major response event, fails in the initial response and recovery efforts, endures congressional investigations, obtains funding to  fix the failures, execute the recovery effort, and return to a complacency mentality until another major event occurs. The purpose of this paper is to address the question of the U.S. readiness in the event there is another terrorist attack. I plan to focus on the aspect of preparation, reforms, and interagency coordination before and after the next terrorist attack. This paper will argue that the preparation for a terrorist attack is required; it’s not a question of how an attack is orchestrated. The question is the U.S. prepared for another terrorist attack and recovery? Literature Review In Perry’s (2001) analysis he explains the actions that the U.S. needs to take in preparation for the next attack. The articles’ publication is under the premise of a worst case scenario as it pertained to terrorism in 2001. The primary focus of the article was the U.S. preparation for any delivery method terrorist organizations could provide. There was a concern that terrorist organizations could/would buy nuclear weapon platforms from rogue Soviet BLOC nations. The only way these attacks could be thwarted was by the mix of three strategies: deterrence, prevention, and defense. The ability for the U.S. to use conventional forces to deter enemies needed to be maintained as well as the intelligence community with an aggressive campaign against nations that sponsor terrorism. In the article, The Next Attack, Flynn (2007) provides a framework in which terrorist organization detonates a bomb at an oil refinery, near Philadelphia’s Citizen Bank Park, that results in the release of a chemical cloud comprised of chemicals used in the refinery process. The cloud kills thousands over a ten day period as a result of breathing the fumes. In the aftermath of 9/11 the U.S. government concluded there was no way they could protect every essential asset and chose to specifically defend critical infrastructure networks. It was believed that terrorists would only attack large targets that they could get the biggest return on investment. Flynn took a very critical view of the U.S. government’s response to compiling a list of high value targets that needed protection, â€Å"It wasn’t rocket science to figure that out, and it took five years to complete.†Ã‚  Flynn further explained a need for manufacturing industries to utilize safer production methods known inherently as safer technology. The technology has a higher cost, but Flynn does an impressive cost comparison that the change-over could cost nationwide for around $250 million, which is what was being spent daily on the war in Iraq. In Interagency Coordination in Response to Terrorism: Promising Practices and Barriers Identified in Four Countries (Strom and Eyerman 2007) is an article that examines our nation’s ability to prepare, respond, and recover from terrorism hinging on multiagency coordination. The focal point of the article is the explanation of the problems that existed pre-9/11 and the progress law enforcement agencies and public health agencies have in coordination with each other across multiple jurisdictions and countries. The article explains in detail the coordination problems that occur when two or more agencies are involved in the same incident. There is a competition for command and control, funding, redundant system and processes across multiple agencies. Two primary problems that were noted were the inability for all agencies to achieve an interoperable communications system to aid in interagency cooperation. The second problem is barriers to communication ranging from coordination and cultural barriers and the lack of proactive information sharing among multiple agencies. The authors noted several changes that needed to occur in order to be successful. The primary focus falling on ceasing interagency competition for funding as this has created fraud, waste, and abuse across multiple U.S. agencies. The second focus was fostering a liaison model and incorporating public-private partnerships as individual companies have systematically been delegated the responsibility of protecting their own businesses. Methodology and Research Strategy The literature review has produced some excellent talking points that may show the U.S. government is not prepared for another 9/11 terrorist attack. This paper will review the readiness of the U.S. in preparation for the next terrorist attack and the ability to respond to that attack. My research will be qualitative in method and analysis in an attempt to produce a  respectable projection of the U.S. readiness for the next terrorist attack. After reviewing twelve Scholarly articles or books the following question is presented. Is the U.S. prepared for another 9/11 terrorist attack? Findings  In the pre-9/11 article: CatastrophicTerrorism: Elements of a National Policy, Carter explained that the U.S. was not taking the threat of terrorism, as they had known in that generation, seriously (Carter, Deutch and Zelikow 1998). In the aftermath of the embassy attacks in Kenya and Tanzania which killed hundreds Carter did not feel that the U.S. government was committed to address terrori stic threats nor was it suitably prepared for a catastrophic terrorist event. Carter gave a prophetic warning that a catastrophic event was plausible in 1998. Terrorist networks were no longer hiding in the shadow as they did during the Cold War. The Preventive Defense strategy, at that time, was outdated. Terrorist networks were embracing change, embedding with organized crime syndicates, drug and human traffickers, and money laundering which created the basic infrastructure of a terrorist organization. During this same time frame we saw the effects of globalization in the Sub-Sahara Africa as it folded in on its self and created lawless safe havens for terrorist organizations to freely operate. Carter predicted a catastrophic terror event would be a watershed event in U.S. history that would change law, challenge personal liberties, and ultimately make terrorism the focus of our national defense strategy (6). Carter and his team were virtually ignored until 9/11. In the aftermath of 9/11 Zelikow sat on the 9/11 Commission. Many of the findings that the 9/11 Commission determined came from the 1998 article. Ultimately, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) creation was in response to the large number of listed intelligence and operational failures among U.S. governmental agencies. These failures were over classification of intelligence, lack of information sharing, interagency competition in investigations, and multiple agencies conducting the same redundant tasks to name few. During DHS’s inception twenty- two federal agencies and 170,000 employees, which specialized in various disciplines ranging from law enforcement to disaster mitigation, were pulled under the control of DHS in order to streamline information sharing and overall interagency cooperation. In the years that followed many studies and reports to congress on the DHS suggest that the organization needed to be reformed due to over-all mismanagement and lack of any institutional control over the multiple agencies. The primary reason for concern is the organizations layer of bureaucratic red tape and political appointees who lack the ability and structural knowledge are hampering the Secretary of Homeland Defenses ability to lead U.S. security efforts (Carafano and Heyman, DHS 2.0: Rethinking the Department of Homeland Security 2004). The DHS has a leviathan sized mission as it pertains to keeping the U.S. safe from terrorist activity. In 2003 report, Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: Department of Homeland Security, the Government Accounting Office (GAO) reported the DHS was a high risk organization for three reasons. First, the organization is too large to manage efficiently. The DHS creation is in response to the events of 9/11 without having a command structure properly planned. Second, among the 22 agencies under the DHS umbrella, there was a large amount of discord, strife, and competition before the merger. The merger did not quell the conflict, it actually added to the competition for funding and resources. Third, these failures expose the U.S. to other possibilities in regards to terrorism (Governement Accounting Office 2003). The GAO further outlines what DHS needs to do to alleviate some of the existing challenges they face now and in the future. DHS must effectively integrate discording agencies in order to foster an environment of partnerships and working environments. DHS must adopt and use public and private partnership business methods, as most of the protection Flynn mentioned earlier has fallen on the private sector and the dependency of first responders. â€Å"The private sector controls 85 % of the critical infrastructure in the nation. Indeed, unless a terrorist’s target is a military or other secure government facility, the first responders will almost certainly be civilians† (9/11 Commission 2004). Finally, the DHS infrastructure must incorporate the maximum use of its brightest and best individuals and must foster interagency cooperation among multiple organizations and countries simultaneously (pg. 1). Since 9/11 the U.S. has not experienced another 9/11 terrorist event, one could assume the DHS and the U.S. War on Terror is having a significant impact on terrorist activity. In 2011, The Heritage Foundation reported 40 terrorist plots had been thwarted since 9/11due to the efforts of DHS employees and power granted under the PATRIOT Act (Carafano and Zuckerman, War on Terrorism: 40 Terrorists Attacks Foiled Since 9/11 2011). Although the PATRIOT Act granted law enforcement agencies nationwide powers and abilities they did not have pre 9/11, the agency has stonewalled terror attacks on U.S. soil, and it is still failing at multiple levels. At this point, it would not be wise to assume the U.S. is 100 percent safe from terror attacks or more importantly the ability or readiness to respond to one. The DHS track record for responding to natural disasters in the U.S. is poor, at best. One example is the DHS response to Hurricane Katrina. By the time Hurricane Katrina had made landfall the DHS had not established the roles and responsibilities that the public and private sectors would play in the survival and recovery of New Orleans, even though the energy and shipping facilities had been considered, â€Å"national critical infrastructure for which the U.S. government should take substantial responsibility in the event of a disaster† (Military Technology 2005). This is where Flynn related this wasn’t rocket science; it just was not completed in a timely manner. There have been a number of theories for the dysfunction of the DHS as it pertains to disaster response. One primary theory is DHS does not have its priorities straight. DHS creation in response to the attacks of 9/11, with its primary focus being on prevention of future attacks. DHS thought process can be seen as one sided as 75 percent of the 3.35 billion in Federal grants were designated for counter-terrorism activities (pg. 104). Additionally, DHS was charged with not fully notifying local and state  leaders about the magnitude of the event and many mass-causality centers were diverted to Iraq and Afghanistan leaving the homeland under sourced. Of the 22 agencies that fall under DHS the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has borne the brunt of the fallout in responding to disaster events. Prior to 9/11 FEMA held a cabinet level position within the Presidential Cabinet and responded to incidents with competence, ability, and utilized lessons learned to prevent the same mistakes in the future. Under the authority of DHS, FEMA lost its cabinet level position, lost independent funding, and FEMA’s competency and performance decreased significantly. Further adding to the dysfunction within the DHS and FEMA’s ability to respond to incidents are the political ramifications of power sharing between the Federal government and state agencies. In response to Hurricane Katrina, the Federal government to include the Department of Defense, the Department of Justice, and the White House could not determine if utilizing Active Duty would violate the Posse Comitatus Act. The DHS and White House did not want to take Constitutional rights away from the states. This delay furthered much needed assistance to the hardest hit areas of the Gulf Coast. WAL-MART had a quicker response time of getting much need supplies into New Orleans but was unable to do enter and provide assistance due to the bureaucratic boondoggle in Washington (Abouo-Bakr 2013). In 2007 and 2009, â€Å"FEMA participated in a national-level exercise aimed at assessing U.S. capacity to prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover from a large-scale disaster† (Busch 2012). In the following months after these training exercises it was reported FEMA did not effectively manage, track, or maintain and failed to complete less than 40 percent of corrective actions noted (pg. 18). FEMA also failed to provide a training outline to address the corrective actions to ensure the mistakes made and lessons learned could be used at future training events in preparation for real life responses to disasters. Conclusion The U.S. has thwarted terrorist attacks on the U.S., on both foreign and  domestic fronts, since the historic events of 9/11. The additional powers granted to the DHS under the PATRIOT Act have aided law enforcement agencies and anti-terrorism activities in the War on Terrorism. The question is not how well the DHS prevents future attacks; it is a question of when the next attack will happen and how will the U.S. respond. In order for the DHS to become successful the Secretary of Homeland Defense must coordinate organizational and logistical support across all 22 agencies. The monetary focus of the DHS must be distributed equally along the other agencies supporting the relief efforts in the event another terrorist event occurs on U.S. soil. The DHS must foster an environment that encourages employees to create Private Public Partnerships (PPP). These partnerships must have a clear and concise plan and all players involved must have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities as it pertains to information and resource sharing during a response to a terror event. The relationship between the DHS and PPP must foster long-term projects and must initially come from within the DHS. FEMA should be removed the organizational tree of DHS and have its cabinet level position re-established and given the ability to meet directly with the President of the United States and all emergency response assets nationwide. FEMAs ability must be restored to pre-9/11 levels in order to meet all future natural disasters or terrorist attacks. The USG must network with the private sector and ensure the plans created do not hamper their bottom line and ensure the cost/risk ratio is sufficient to stock holders in the private sector. The DHS and FEMA have applied some of the lessons learned in past response efforts and Congress has turned some of them into law. The two most important laws will assist FEMA in emergency management. First, the head of FEMA must be an emergency management professional and have least five years executive experience. Second, during a disaster, the lines of communication between the President and FEMA are open without interruption from the DHS (King, et al. 2009). The changes to law were a small step for FEMA but now allow them to coordinate with all organizations along the National Incident Management System and the National Response Framework. Both of the programs describe how multiple players from the lowest level to the Director of FEMA how they should work together in response to an incident. Both of these programs are balance to react to an incident whether it is a terrorist event or a natural disaster, but they still have a long way to go. The DHS prevents attacks well but at times fails miserably in response efforts due to interagency shortfalls. Until there is a balance between the efforts carried out in the War on Terror and the response efforts after an event the U.S. will not be prepared for the next attack. References 9/11 Commission. The 9/11 Comission Report. July 26, 2004. www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf (accessed 12 29, 2013). Abouo-Bakr, C. Managing Disasters through Public-Private Partnerships. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2013. Busch, Jason. â€Å"FEMA Falters in Self-Improvement.† News Network, November 2012: 18. Carafano, James, and David Heyman. DHS 2.0: Rethinking the Department of Homeland Security. Special Report SR-02, Washington: The Heritage Foundation, 2004. Carafano, James, and Jessica Zuckerman. War on Terrorism: 40 Terrorists Attacks Foiled Since 9/11 . September 7, 2011. http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2011/09/40-terror-plots-foiled-since-9-11-combating-complacency-in-the-long-war-on-terror (accessed 12 24, 2013). Carter, Ashton B,, John M. Deutch, and Philip D. Zelikow. Catasrophic Terrorism: Elements of a National Policy. Visions of Governance for the Twenty-First Century, John F. Kennedy School of Government, 1998. Flynn, Stephen. â€Å"The Next Attack.† The Washington Monthly, March 2007: 31-37. Governement Accounting Office. Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: Department of Hoeland Security. Series Report, Washington: United States General Accounting Office, 2003. King, Peter, et al. â€Å"Keep FEMA within Homeland Security.† January 14, 2009. http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy2.apus.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bwh&a

Ethan Frome †Book

Ethan Frome – Book Free Online Research Papers Form I I. The main character in the book Ethan Frome is Ethan. He is very sensitive for others and is weighed down from living in Starkfield for so long. Ethan has many different personality traits that are seen with the course of the book. Some of these traits that Ethan expresses are his abilities to help others at his own expense, how hard he works to achieve his goals, and also that he is responsible. Another trait, that some may say is negative, is that Ethan does not stand up for himself, and inconveniences himself for other people, whether it means taking away somebody Ethan loves. The reason Ethan asks Zenobia to marry him is because he needs someone to take care for him since his parents are dead. II. Zenobia is a sickly person who likes to focus on the treatment of her â€Å"sickness† rather on others. She is self-centered and likes to be the center of attention. She holds the position of authority in the Frome household and likes to take advantage of it. Ethan and Zenobia meet while she is taking care of his sick parents. III. Mattie Silver is Zeena’s loyal cousin who is fully capable of helping Ethan and Zeena. She is really beautiful, young, and energetic. Mattie is a hardworking, down-to-earth kind of girl. Mattie’s relationship with Ethan seems to be a lasting one. They both strong feelings for each other and have many similarities. Although Ethan has this Beat-up, careless look, and Mattie is extremely beautiful they are a perfect match for each other and really care for one another. IV. Mattie and Ethan come to be able to spend the night together because Zeena has left town to see her doctor. This leaves the couple alone in the kitchen for the night. This is the first time they are alone together and they get to share their past lives with each other and get to show their feelings. They are sitting near the fire and Mattie is knitting while they talk. Ethan wants to kiss her but is afraid so he kisses her scarf that she is knitting. They are falling in love. V. Ethan and Mattie Decide that they want to die together so they plan to commit suicide by running their sled into the big elm tree. The two pile onto the sled together, with Ethan sitting in front, and Ethan sets the sled into its fatal motion. As they hurtle down the hill, Ethan feels confident that they will hit the tree, but at the last moment he swerves unexpectedly, as he seems to see Zeena’s face before him. The sled glides off in a second of uncertainty before he rights it on its course again. They then hit the elm. Both of them survive. They are both hurt badly and Zeena has to take care of them. Form II I. There were many themes found in Ethan Frome, but the greatest of them all is loneliness and isolation. In college Ethan acquired the nickname Old Stiff because he rarely went out with the boys. Once he returned to the farm to care for his parents, he couldnt go out with them even if he wanted to. Whatever hes done has kept him apart from others: tending to the farm and mill, nursing his sick mother and caring for Zeena. Ethans isolation is intensified, because he is often tongue-tied. He would like to make contact with others but cant. For example, when he wants to impress Mattie with beautiful words of love, he mutters, Come along. II. Mattie and Zeena are true opposites. When Mattie first got off of the train she was shown as very depressed and pale. But as weeks pass she gets out of her depression and very quickly becomes a vibrant young woman who shone with natural beauty, something Zeena never had. She was able to win the heart of many young men in a heartbeat. Mattie was everything Zeena wasn’t and she too was able to captivate the heart of Ethan. Mattie was truly in love with Ethan while Zeena only married Ethan out of lust and not for love. Zeena did not love Ethan while Mattie and Ethan were beyond doubt in love. III. Ethan Frome’s house is wearing away from the many winters it has faced. Like Ethan, they are both bent badly out of shape and need care. Both Ethan and the house represent that many things have come and gone over them, most of which were failures. Both the house and Ethan were shaped by the harsh winters and the many people who lived in the house. IV. The Frome graveyard represents Ethan’s eternal bond with Zeena. He hates Zeena and doesn’t want to have to spend all eternity lying next to her. This is why he fears the graveyard. The graveyard also represents how the rest of his family was not able to get out of bleak old Starkfield. He wants to lay there for ever with Mattie. V. The Elm tree symbolizes the end and the escape of two lives. It also symbolizes strength and courage. After the crash, the Elm tree was still standing, while Ethan and Mattie were terribly injured. If Ethan was a stronger person he would not have crashed into the tree with Mattie. He would have had the strength to say â€Å"no† in the first place. Zeena who was once a hypochondriac, recovered, and now she has to take care of Mattie and Ethan. â€Å"It was a miracle, considering how sick she was-but she seemed to be raised right up just when the call came to her.† (p,131) Research Papers on Ethan Frome - BookHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows EssayBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Capital PunishmentEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenHip-Hop is ArtHonest Iagos Truth through Deception19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraThe Hockey Game

Biography of Richard Nixon, 37th U.S. President

Biography of Richard Nixon, 37th U.S. President Richard M. Nixon (January 9, 1913–April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. Prior to that, he was a U.S. senator from California and vice president under Dwight Eisenhower. As a result of his involvement in the Watergate scandal, a cover-up of illegal activities connected with his reelection committee, Nixon became the first and only U.S. president to resign from office. Fast Facts: Richard Nixon Known For: Nixon was the 37th president of the United States and the only president to resign from office.Also Known As: Richard Milhous Nixon, â€Å"Tricky Dick†Born:  January 9, 1913 in Yorba Linda, CaliforniaParents: Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous NixonDied:  April 22, 1994 in New York, New YorkEducation: Whittier College, Duke University Law SchoolSpouse:  Thelma Catherine Pat Ryan (m. 1940–1993)Children: Tricia, JulieNotable Quote: â€Å"People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I’m not a crook. I’ve earned everything I’ve got.† Early Life Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 19, 1913, to Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous Nixon in Yorba Linda, California. Nixon’s father was a rancher, but after his ranch failed he moved the family to Whittier, California, where he opened a service station and grocery store. Nixon grew up poor and was raised in a very conservative, Quaker household. Nixon had four brothers: Harold, Donald, Arthur, and Edward. Harold died of tuberculosis at age 23 and Arthur died at age 7 of tubercular encephalitis. Education Nixon was an exceptional student and graduated second in his class at Whittier College, where he won a scholarship to attend Duke University Law School in North Carolina. After graduating from Duke in 1937, Nixon was unable to find work on the East Coast and decided to move back to Whittier, where he worked as a small-town lawyer. Nixon met his wife, Thelma Catherine Patricia â€Å"Pat† Ryan, when the two played opposite one another in a community theater production. He and Pat were married on June 21, 1940, and had two children: Tricia (born in 1946) and Julie (born in 1948). World War II On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the U.S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor, ushering the United States into World War II. Shortly afterward, Nixon moved from Whittier to Washington D.C., where he took a job at the Office of Price Administration (OPA). As a Quaker, Nixon was eligible to apply for an exemption from military service. He was bored with his role at the OPA, however, so he applied to the Navy and joined in August 1942 at the age of 29. Nixon was stationed as a naval control officer in the South Pacific Combat Air Transport. While Nixon did not serve in a combat role during the war, he was awarded two service stars and a citation of commendation and was eventually promoted to the rank of lieutenant commander. Nixon resigned his commission in January 1946. Congressional Service In 1946, Nixon ran for a seat in the House of Representatives for the 12th Congressional District of California. To beat his opponent, five-term Democratic incumbent Jerry Voorhis, Nixon used a variety of smear tactics, insinuating that Voorhis had communist ties because he had once been endorsed by the labor organization CIO-PAC. Nixon won the election. Nixon’s tenure in the House of Representatives was notable for his anti-communist crusading. He served as a member of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), which was responsible for investigating individuals and groups with suspected ties to communism. Nixon was also instrumental in the investigation and conviction for perjury of Alger Hiss, an alleged member of an underground communist organization. Nixon’s aggressive questioning of Hiss at the HUAC hearing was central to securing Hiss’ conviction and won Nixon national attention. Wikimedia Commons   Nixon ran for a seat in the Senate in 1950. Once again, he used smear tactics against his opponent, Helen Douglas. Nixon was so overt in his attempt to tie Douglas to communism that he even had some of his flyers printed on pink paper. In response to Nixons smear tactics and his attempt to get Democrats to cross party lines and vote for him, a Democratic committee ran a full-page ad in several papers with a political cartoon of Nixon shoveling hay labeled â€Å"Campaign Trickery† into a donkey labeled Democrat. Under the cartoon was written, â€Å"Look at Tricky Dick Nixon’s Republican Record.† Despite the ad, Nixon went on to win the election- but the nickname Tricky Dick stuck with him. Run for Vice President When Dwight D. Eisenhower decided to run as the Republican Partys candidate for president in 1952, he needed a running mate. Nixon’s anti-communist position and strong base of support in California made him an ideal choice. During the campaign, Nixon was nearly removed from the ticket when he was accused of financial improprieties for allegedly using an $18,000 campaign contribution for personal expenses. In a televised address that became known as the â€Å"Checkers† speech delivered on September 23, 1952, Nixon defended his honesty and integrity. In a bit of levity, Nixon stated that there was one personal gift that he just wasnt going to return- a little Cocker Spaniel dog, whom his 6-year-old daughter had named Checkers. The speech was enough of a success to keep Nixon on the ticket. Vice Presidency After Eisenhower won the presidential election in November 1952, Nixon, now vice president, focused much of his attention on foreign affairs. In 1953, he visited several countries in the Far East. In 1957 he visited Africa, and in 1958 he visited Latin America. Nixon was also instrumental in helping push the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. In 1959, Nixon met with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in Moscow. In what became known as the â€Å"Kitchen Debate,† an impromptu argument erupted over the ability of each nation to provide good food and a good life to its citizens. The profanity-laced argument soon escalated as both leaders defended their countrys way of life. After Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in 1955 and a stroke in 1957, Nixon was called on to assume some of his high-level duties. At the time, there was no formal process for the transfer of power in the event of a presidential disability. Nixon and Eisenhower worked out an agreement that became the basis for the 25th Amendment to the Constitution, which was ratified on February 10, 1967. The amendment detailed the procedure for presidential succession in the event of the presidents incapacitation or death. Failed Presidential Run of 1960 After Eisenhower completed his two terms in office, Nixon launched his own bid for the White House in 1960 and easily won the Republican nomination. His opponent on the Democratic side was Massachusetts Sen. John F. Kennedy, who campaigned on the idea of bringing a new generation of leadership to the White House. The 1960 campaign was the first to make use of the new medium of television for advertisements, news, and policy debates. For the first time in American history, citizens were afforded the ability to follow the presidential campaign in real time. Bettmann Archive / Getty Images For the first debate, Nixon chose to wear little makeup, wore a badly selected gray suit, and came across looking old and tired compared to the younger and more photogenic Kennedy. The race remained tight, but Nixon eventually lost the election to Kennedy by 120,000 votes. Nixon spent the years between 1960 and 1968 writing a bestselling book, Six Crises, which recounted his role in six political crises. He also ran unsuccessfully for governor of California against Democratic incumbent Pat Brown. 1968 Election In November 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the office of the presidency and easily won re-election in 1964. In 1967, as the 1968 election approached, Nixon announced his own candidacy and easily won the Republican nomination. Faced with mounting disapproval ratings, Johnson withdrew as a candidate during the campaign. The new Democratic front-runner became Robert F. Kennedy, the younger brother of John. Wikimedia Commons   On June 5, 1968, Robert Kennedy was shot and killed following his victory in the California primary. Rushing now to find a replacement, the Democratic Party nominated Johnson’s vice president, Hubert Humphrey, to run against Nixon. Alabama Governor George Wallace had also joined the race as an independent. In another close election, Nixon won the presidency by 500,000 popular votes. Presidency Major domestic accomplishments during Nixons presidency included Neil Armstrongs and Buzz Aldrins historic walk on the moon in 1969; the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970; and the passage of the 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1971, which granted 18-year-olds the right to vote. Nixons focus on foreign relations had him initially escalating the Vietnam War as he implemented a controversial bombing campaign against the neutral nation of Cambodia to disrupt North Vietnamese supply lines. Later, however, Nixon was instrumental in withdrawing all combat units from Vietnam, and by 1973 he had ended mandatory military conscription. Fighting within Vietnam finally ceased when Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese in 1975. In 1972, with the help of his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, President Nixon and his wife Pat embarked on a week-long trip to China in order to establish diplomatic relations. Resentment between China and the U.S. had lingered following the Korean War, during which China had fought against U.S. forces. The visit marked the first time a U.S. president had visited the communist nation, which was then under the control of Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong. Nixons visit was an important step in improving relations between these two powerful nations. Watergate Scandal Nixon was reelected in 1972 in what is considered one of the largest landslide victories in U.S. history. Unfortunately, Nixon was willing to use any means necessary to ensure his re-election. On June 17, 1972, five men were caught breaking into the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., to plant listening devices. Nixon’s campaign staff believed the devices would provide information that could be used against Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern. While the Nixon administration initially denied involvement in the break-in, two young newspaper reporters for the Washington Post, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, obtained information from a source known as â€Å"Deep Throat,† who became instrumental in tying the administration to the break-in. Nixon remained defiant throughout the Watergate scandal, and in a televised statement on November 17, 1973, he infamously stated, â€Å"People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I’m not a crook. I’ve earned everything I’ve got.† During the investigation that followed, it was revealed that Nixon had installed a secret tape-recording system in the White House. A legal battle ensued, with Nixon reluctantly agreeing to the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts from what became known as the â€Å"Watergate Tapes.† Mysteriously, there was an 18-minute gap on one of the tapes, which a secretary claimed she had accidentally erased. Impeachment Proceedings and Resignation With the release of the tapes, the House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment proceedings against Nixon. On July 27, 1974, with a vote of 27-11, the Committee voted in favor of bringing articles of impeachment against Nixon. On August 8, 1974, having lost the support of the Republican Party and facing impeachment, Nixon delivered his resignation speech from the Oval Office. At noon the next day, Nixon became the first president in United States history to resign from office. Nixon’s vice president Gerald R. Ford assumed the office of president. On September 8, 1974, Ford granted Nixon a â€Å"full, free and absolute pardon,† ending any chance of an indictment against Nixon. Death After his resignation from office, Nixon retired to San Clemente, California. He wrote both his memoirs and several books on international affairs. With the success of his books, he became somewhat of an authority on American foreign relations, improving his public reputation. Toward the end of his life, Nixon actively campaigned for American support and financial aid for Russia and other former Soviet republics. On April 18, 1994, Nixon suffered a stroke and died four days later at the age of 81. Legacy In his time, Nixon was known for his uneasy public persona and intense secrecy. He is now best remembered for his involvement in the Watergate scandal and his resignation from office, a presidential first. He has been depicted in a variety of dramatic films and documentaries, including Frost/Nixon, Secret Honor, The Assassination of Richard Nixon, and Our Nixon. Sources Ambrose, Stephen E.  Nixon. Simon and Schuster, 1987.Gellman, Irwin F.  The Contender, Richard Nixon: the Congress Years, 1946-1952. Free Press, 1999.

The Electronic Commerce In the US Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Electronic Commerce In the US - Case Study Example Since this is a new medium for commerce and as the global marketing of goods or services is growing enormously, there is a need for redrafting the legal environment suitably. The legitimate revenues to the governments were previously realized through taxes on sales, as applicable under the standard law. This new face of marketing which is termed electronic commerce has once again highlighted the need for creating new laws to safeguard the interests of the customers as well as the manufacturers and revamping the source for taxes to be levied. The changes, which result from electronic commerce and related technology offer significant benefits to business, consumers, and government. They increase convenience, efficiency, and productivity and reduce costs. It is important to look forward to the changes and how they will influence the current tax laws as they relate to maintaining consistent revenue flows and taxpayer equity. In the U.S., the emergence of electronic commerce has left a prominent impact on the telecommunication, information and computer sectors, advertising, publishing, and media industries. The issues brought forth by the electronic commerce, which relate to sales tax and use tax, have attracted the attention of the federal, state and local governments. Promoting the growth of internet commerce is inevitable because of its potential in generating revenues and jobs and increasing productivity. However, the state and local governments are dependent on a consistent inflow of revenues to maintain essential services. Sales and use tax account for 36.7 percent of overall tax revenues. There is a need for a cooperative and simplified sales and use the tax system to provide for efficient and equitable taxation of interstate commerce. The Internet Tax Freedom Act created the Advisory Commission on Electronic Commerce and this commission recommended that while the internet should not be taxed more than other channels, it should not permit the avoidance of tax. The remote vendors argued that imposition of sales tax collection responsibilities in all of the thousands of the taxing jurisdictions in the U.S. would create an unacceptable burden (Pennsylvania Department of Revenue, September 22, 1999). The doctrine of sovereign immunity, in international law, permits a court to give up its jurisdictional rights in respect of foreign enterprises or countries. This doctrine has as its bases the traditional notions that a sovereign should not be subject to litigation in a foreign court. The result is that investors may be unable to obtain relief in their country's legal system. In some countries, this doctrine's application to commerce has been limited. While contracting with a private party if a foreign nation does not allow itself to be subject to the local laws, then recourse to U.S. courts in case of a breach is not possible.